Civilizations+in+Crisis-+Ottomans,+Egypt,+and+China

Civilizations in Crisis: Ottomans, Egypt, and China

China
 * Christian missionaries infiltrated Chinese coastal areas and tries to gain access to court
 * Franciscans and Dominicans ~ win converts among the common people and made modest progress-> counted in the tens of thousands~ Jesuits adopted strategy that di Nobili has brought upon.
 * Ming emperor~ top of social hierarchy~ rulers and chief advisors were prime targets of Jesuit mission.
 * Jesuits scholars such as **Matteo Ricci**  and **Adam Schall**  spent time in imperial city correcting calendars, forging cannons, fixing clocks imported from the European.
 * scholar-officials ~ humiliated by foreigners’ corrections to their calendars were openly hostile to Jesuits.

 Japan
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Nobunaga** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - not afraid of launching a surprise attack on Portuguese ~1540s
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Nobunaga** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> armies drove against powerful western daimyo in 1582~ was caught off by guard by one vessel generals and was killed when Kyoto temple was burned to the ground.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">impressed with European firearms and pugnacity of European and didn’t take threat of invasion lightly.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Japanese ships were forbidden and trade or sail overseas.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Elites follow developments of west.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">fair of Europeans conquering islands.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: During the 1600s, the Ming dynasty has fallen into the hands of the Manchus, but they retain the political system of the Chinese.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Nurhaci** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">(1559-1626) ~ A leader of Manchu combine tribes into fighting units within the <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**banner armies** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> that was name after flag that identified them. Manchu adopted Chinese ways such as bureaucracy was organized along the Chinese lines and Chinese court ceremonies.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1644~ Ming official of the northern defense called the Manchus for help to put down rebellions, but instead they became a bigger threat to the Chinese → Manchus took control of Ming capital at Beijing and Ming rebellion resistance of the south and west were destroyed by banner armies → Manchus=master of China.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Manchu taken over Qing→ ruling the largest area than any Chinese dynasty besides Tang.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Manchu → retained political system of the Ming → wanted scholar-officials who served Ming to continue in office → Manchu officials =higher ranks, but few limits on talented ethnic Chinese that rise in imperial bureaucracy.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Manchus retained examination system and own sons educated in Chinese classics → Manchus emperor style themselves the Songs of Heaven → <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Kangxi** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> (1661-1722) was consider to be a Confucian scholar in his own right ~ great encyclopedias of Chinese learning.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: In Qing society, women were consider to be a lower status than men, while peasants were consider to be the keeps the society with money.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Zhu Xi influence in dynastic eras dominating the official thinking → respect of rank and acceptance of hierarchy ~ older over young, male over female, scholar-bureaucrat over commoner were all taught in education and imperial edicts. Extended family remain in the social order.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Women → household, dominance of elder men was upheld by familial pressures/ state. Male picks bride as lower status than them. Males outnumber female.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Lower class women work in fields and sell produce in local markets~ best married women are back up by father and bother → born sons and live long enough → able to control the household.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Taxes and state demands were lowered~ tax free tenure were given to those willing to resettle lands that had been abandoned in turmoil.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Sizeable chunk of imperial budget goes to repairing dikes, canals, roadways, extension of irrigation works
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">peasants encourage to plant new crops,
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Landlords → called loans on peasants or buying them out
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Profits from overseas trade given wealthy merchants, <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**compradorsb -** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">import-export trade on China’s coast.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration.// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: In 1800s, the Chinese bureaucracy was corrupted with cheating and favoritism.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">the bureaucratic system such as the exam system ~ fill with cheating and favoritism → sons of high officials were ensure a place and anyone with enough money are able to buy post for sons or brothers. Cheat sheets existed.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">bureaucratic → saw wealthy position as influencing local officials, judges, and enhancing family fortunes, but less concern on the effects of the bureaucratic decisions on peasantry and urban laborers.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Money to maintain the armies and fleets that defend fell sharply / public works were neglected for lack of funds and proper official supervisions of repairs.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1850s, dikes that was neglected fell down over much area and river was flooded hundreds of mile on farmlands. 1860s, main channel river ~ lands between it has been flooded and farms were gone → peasants left with no livestock or land to cultivate~ peasants died of famine and disease.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">food shortage and landlord demands to have a mass migrations → beggars crowd the street and banditry ~ government unable to deal with it.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: During the mid-19th century, British brought opium in China leading them to the Opium War in the 1839.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">mid-19th century ~ China broke out into war with Europeans. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">British merchants exported silks, fine porcelains, tea, and other products from China ~ British traded with silver bullion → Opium was sold illegally or legally to merchants in south of China coast → 1839 ~ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Opium War** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> nearly 40,000 chests were imported by Chinese from the British. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Silver flow in large quantities out the country, sources for public works and trade expansion decrease, agricultural productivity decline, people with no jobs spread~ in the hinterlands of coastal trading areas. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Opium ~ officials neglected their administrative responsibilities, laborers/ peasants abandoned their work for pleasures of opium. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">19th century~ court and high officials wanted opium trade to be stopped → 1820s, opium dealers were driven out from Canton to nearby islands and other hidden locations of the coast → emperor sent <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Lin Zexu** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">, to stamp out the trade → ordered European trading areas in Canton blockaded, warehouses searched, and all opium has to be destoryed. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">European demand military actions for their losses → argue Lin’s measures violated property rights of merchants and principles of free trade → British order Chinese to stop anti-opium campaign → 1839 war broke out → British won with their gunboats → Lin was exile. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Late 1850s, European force China to open trade and diplomatic exchanges → more ports were open by the European. //

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: By the 1850s-1860s, rebellions brought out into China gaining control over the government.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Hong Xiuquan** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> in the 1850s and early 1860s → led <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Taiping Rebellion** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> → Hakka women were apart of the army → captured south central territory establishing a capital called Nanjing ~ west of Shanghai //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Taiping control, rebel leaders fought among themselves → killed and others. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Taiping movements → offer programs for social reform, land redistribution, liberation of women, attack traditional Confucian elite, smash ancestral tablets and shrines → develop simplified script and mass literacy. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Zeng Guofan~ raised military forces in time to fend off Taiping assault on northern China → carried reforms to root out corruption of bureaucracy and were responsible for <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**self-strengthening movement** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> in China → encourage Western investment in railways/factories and modernized the armies. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Hong death~ illness or suicide~ before Nanjing was taken over ~ follower's perished in battle or immolated themselves with fire. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Cixi** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> ~ came in throne ~ 1898~ move toward reform --.nephew ~ emperor was prison in the Forbidden City → Manchus relied on divisions among provincial officials and among European power to maintain their position. //
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Boxer Rebellion** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> → upraise 1898 putting down imperialist powers in 1901--> fail ~ leading to China's internal affairs by European control and more power to provincial officials. //

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">//The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization?// <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">MI: Secret societies were form in the Qing dynasty seizing power over the government, as a result Puyi created a republican government in China.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Qing came to the center of secret societies such as Triads and Society of Elders and Brothers → underground organizations inspiring numerous local uprising against the dynasty.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Scholar-gentry sons and merchants in the port cities were more involve in secret society operations/ other activities that aim at overthrowing → men that receive European- style educations~ aim to get rid of Manchus → power of passing Western-educated, reformist leaders who build new, string nation-state in China.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Sun Yat-sen** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> seize power → needed social programs to relieve misery of peasants and urban workers.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Revolutionaries--> Middle class → involvement of imperialist powers in Chinese affairs → condemned Manchus for failing to control foreigners → cut of queues (braided ponytails).
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1911, opposition to government’s reliance on Western powers for railway loads lead toward secret society to upraise.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">February 1912~ last emperor in China, <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">**Puyi** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> ~ small boy was ask to create a republican government in China.



__**//Ottoman Empire and Egypt//**__

· Weak leaders · Urban riots were form in the 18th and 19th century~ members of artisan guilds and young men’s association took over leading role. · Jews and Christians merchants depend on commercial dealings with European counterparts. · Armies were trained by Europeans. · 1700s~ Russian Empire-> strengthen by Peter the Great force Westernization to became a threat to the empire. · Lack of technologcial cause issues Reform and Survival: · Sultan **Selim III** believe border initiatives were needed if they were to survive -> improving administrative efficiency/building new army and navy-> angered powerful factions of the bureaucracy-> Janissary ~ direct threat-> Janissary revolt in 1807 and was killed. · **Mahmud II**, build small professional army with the help of European-> Janissaries revolt, but was shocked by the well trained army, therefore they were all slaughter. · Mahud II, launch reforms-> created diplomatic crops in Western lines/exchange ambassadors within the power-> European military advisors ~ army and navy were imported. · 1839-1876, **Tanzimat reforms**~ education was reorganized by Western lines and mathematics and sciences are introduced-> state run postal and telegraph system was created, railways were built, and newspaper created in major of the towns-> extensive legal reforms enacted-> basing on European prototypes. Repression and Revolt · **Abdul Hamid** -> fixed the constitution and restrict civil liberties such as freedom of the press-> suspected troublemakers or dissidents were imprison, tortured, and killed. · **Ottoman Society for Union and Progress** in 1889, Young Turks determine to restore the constitution and resume reforms of empire-> Clandestine printing press-> outline farther steps of taking to modernize/save empire. · Officers came to power-> restore constitution, press freedoms, promise reforms in education, administration, and status of women-> sultans were highest power-> begin to fight one another. || Western Intrusions and Crisis: Egypt Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt · Napoleon slip fleet past British blockade in Mediterranean and put armies in July 1798-> advance inland ~ Napoleon’s forces met by ten thousands of cavalry on defending Mamluk. · Prevent British power in India. · **Murad**-> head of Mamluk households that share power in Egypt at the time of Napoleon’s arrival · Murad ~ talented French commander tha fought a battle beneath the pyramids of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. (more well equipped and weapon) · British cut of the French supply~ French move out of Egypt. · **Muhammed Ali** brought Western-style military forces and conscription and hired French officers to train his troops. · Muhammed order Egyptian society to increase production of cotton, hemp, indigo and other crops ~ improve Egyptian harbors and extend irrigation works ~ attempt to reform education, but little was achieved · **Khedives** were put to rule after the death of Muhammed Ali ~ formal rulers of Egypt until they were overthrown by military coup bringing Gamel Abdul Nasser to power in 1952. Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance. · Cotton production increasing and landlord class grew fat~ many peasants were in hunger · French was considering being the language taught for education. · European financiers lent money to the khedives in order to access to cotton cheaper-> a share of the **Suez Canal** that linked Mediterranean and Red seas together. 1869   · **Al-afghani** and **Muhammad Abduh**-> stress need for Muslims to borrow scientific learning/technology from the West-> argued Islamic civilization had taught Europeans sciences and mathematics including the critical concepts of Indian numerals. · Debts of khedival regime/ canal gave European powers especially the French and Britain. · **Ahmad Orabi**~ brought riots in the city of Alexandria-> khedival went for British help-> crush Orabi rebellion and secure khedive position · British rule through khedives and advisors being all high-ranking Egyptian administrators à control finances/foreign affairs Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan · Egyptians mainly want the area of fertile land along rivers ~ more easier to dominated such as the **Khartoum** which is the center of Egyptian administration in Sudan. · Egyptians regime were corrupted and taxes were placed heavy burden on peasants -> Muslims angered by Egyptians due to Slave trading. · **Muhammand Achmad** ~ **Mahdi** advanced his reputation and Egyptian capture and imprison him that led to his widespread acceptance as a leader of revolt against foreign intruders. · Mahdi helped earn forces that led to victories over the Egyptians~ control corresponding area to the present-day nation of Sudan. · **Khalifa Abdallahi**~ consider to be Mahdi’s skillful military commanders-> Mahdists built close control society which smoking, dancing, alcoholic drink were not allow, theft prostitution, and adultery were punished-> foreigners were imprisoned/expelled while banning slavery was increase. · 1896~ British General Kitchener-> sent with a force that was equipped with machine guns and artillery, therefore the Mahdists were no match for them. · 1898- thousands of Mahdists were slaughtered~ Madhist state collapsed-> British in controlled ||
 * Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey