The+Americans+on+the+Eve+of+Invasion

The Americas on The Eve of Invasion   //ESPIRIT CHART ON THE AZTECS//  Aztecs ~15 century o Supported settlements, towns, and dense population o Became cultural heartland/population center o Post-Toltec Mesoamerica § Various people and cities wanted the control the lakes v Aztecs took over and called themselves the Mexica o Allow water to reach all plants o Willow trees were planted at intervals to give shade and help fix roots o Agriculture was high o Rise of level of lakes made it impossible to continue o Local clan apportioned the lands o Some were set aside for support of temples and state o Individuals nobles have private estates that were worked by servants and slaves from conquered people o Has periodic markets~ according to calendar, every 5-13 days goods were exchanged o Cacao beans and gold dust is used as currency in the trade, but most was done as barter o Control by **pochteca** o Highly regulated with the control of inspectors and special judges o **Toltec culture**- adopted features from sedentary people and added a strong militaristic ethic. § Sacrifice and war portrayed in Toltec art. o View as givers of civilizations o Archeological record indicates accomplishments were confused with Teotihuacan o **Topiltzin** – Toltec leader / priest dedicated to god **Quetzalcoatl** § Religious reformer that involve in struggle for priestly and political power § Topiltzin and his follower promise to take his throne on the same date according to the cyclical calendar system § Sail with his followers to Yucatan § Influence spread northward and Aztecs- response to the Europeans when they arrived. o Ruled by the authority of supreme ruler o Serve as mercenaries/ allies § Brought prosperity to ruler and warrior nobles o Emerge as independent power in 1428 o People were forced to pay tribute, surrender lands, and military service for growing the empire. o Society changed with expansions and conquest o Kinship and residential groupings including neighbors, allies, dependants o Local life was based on calpulli, distributing land to heads of households, organize labor gangs, military units, and maintain temple/school. o Governed by councils of family heads o Families and calpulli status weren’t equal o Every person, noble, and commoner has to belong in a calpulli o They don’t control lands/worked at the will of others o Status was low, but not consider to be slaves o Peasant women helped in fields and household such as child-rearing and cooking, weaving skill o Training of younger women was relied on older women o Marriages were arranged b/w lineages and virginity at marriage o Able to have property and pass it to their heirs o Not able to do what a men can do in the political and social society o Spend 6 hours a day grinding corn by hand on stone boards~ metates o Without the technology women weren’t able to gain more free time || o Chichimec and groups of sedentary farmers migrants from northwest o Lake was dominated by tribes/people that organized into city-states o Political maneuvers, state marriages, competing powers, and shifting alliances all existed o Human sacrifice and conquest blend in with political power of ruler/nobility o Toltec Empire fell/ trade in local turquoise ended § Anasazi (town) @ Chaco Canyon in New Mexico was abandoned. o Fighting skills could become useful- attractive as allies to others § Driven out by more powerful neighbors o Wanderings would end if they see an eagle perched on cactus with serpent in its beak~ was seen on marshy island in Lake Texcoco o Military classes § Plays a central role as suppliers as the sacrificial victims o Has at least 128 major deities § Each deity has male and female form. o Deities are split into 3 major themes § Gods of fertility and agricultural cycle v **Tlaloc** god of rain, and the gods/goddesses of water, maize and fertility § Centered on creator of deities v Brought universe into being ü Play role in Aztec cosmography § Warfare/sacrifice v Aztec state became the cult of the state v **Huitzilopochtli** became a central figure o Mississippian culture based on maize/bean agriculture o Towns located along rivers o Stepped temples o Large burial mounds (sites) § Accompanied by ritual executions/sacrifices of servants/wives § Well-produced pottery o Covers 5 square miles o Have more than 30,000 people o Largest earthen pyramid called “Monks’ Mound” § Covers 15 acres § Largest pyramid in Mexico SUMMARY:
 * E || MI: As the Aztecs continues to expand, trade and agriculture has developed and brought new ideas.
 * In central Mexico nomadic people from north took advantage of political vacuum to move toward richer lands.
 * Shores of large chain lakes
 * Around lakes- adopted ingenious system of irrigated agriculture by building **chinampas** for agriculture
 * Production of Aztec peasantry provided basic foods
 * Aztec community
 * Markets of Tlateloco
 * States control the use and distribution of commodities/redistributed amounts of the tributes received from the foreign people
 * Tribute levels were assign according to the acceptance of Aztec rule or fought against it and those surrender paid less
 * 120,000 mantles of cotton cloth were collected as tribute each year and sent toward Tenchtitlan-> state reward nobility richly and commoners poorly ||
 * S || MI: After the end of Toltec, Aztecs has taken over and developed its own civilization with clans, social structures, and military.
 * Toltec- established a capital at Tula in 968.
 * Aztecs- group of ~ 10,000 people migrated to the shores of Lake Texcoco around 1325.
 * (Aztecs) Mexcia settled, **Tenochtitlan** was found about 1325.
 * Aztecs
 * Aztecs were divided into seven **calpulli**
 * Commoners can be promote to noble status and most are born in the class
 * Nobles control priesthood and military leadership
 * Military organized into various ranks based on experience and success in taking captives
 * As expanded the social classes were separated by restriction on clothing, hairstyles, uniforms, and other symbols of ranks
 * Nobility broke free from old calpulli/control private lands~ class of laborers was created to work on the lands
 * Scribes, artisans, healers were part of intermediate group that is important in the large cities.
 * Merchants form something like capulli with their own patron gods, privileges, internal divisions~ consider to be spies or agents for Aztec military
 * Women in Aztec
 * P || MI: City-states begins to form in the Aztecs and military was control by political.
 * Population and political power shifted from central Mexico toward the valley of Mexico~ shores of the large chain lakes
 * Aztec rise in power and formation of imperial states.
 * After the fall of Toltec Empire
 * Political units authority claim basis of military powers/ connection of Toltec culture
 * Nahuatl was spoken as the language~ Aztecs also spoke this language, as a result they rise to power and be more accepted.
 * Mocetezuma II, Aztec state was dominated by a king that represents civil power and belief of gods on earth
 * City-state was ruled by a speaker chosen from nobility
 * Election of the ruler wasn’t fair at all
 * Most power was in the hands of Aztec ruler and his chief advisor
 * Local rulers was place to act as tribute collectors for Aztec overlords
 * Tribute payment serve economic and political function that concentrated on the power and wealth in Aztec capital ||
 * I || MI: Toltec has faced invaders, Aztecs and later led to a fall of the empire.
 * Toltec traded for turquoise in American Southwest
 * Toltec Empire lasted until 1150~ destroyed by nomadic invaders from north.
 * Aztecs were distrusted/disliked by dominant powers in the area
 * **Tenochtitlan** in 1434, took alliance with other city-states that controls the central plateau. ||
 * R || MI: Beliefs of God play a major role in Aztecs society.
 * Aztecs consider being tough warriors/fanatical followers of gods by offering human sacrifices.
 * Mexica described as people chosen to serve gods
 * Human sacrifice
 * Couple territories left unconquered, so “flower wars” could be staged that both sides can obtain captives for sacrifice.
 * Belief of gods such as rain, fire, water, corn, sky, and sun
 * Gods were supported with ceremonies involving feasting, dancing, and sacrifice.
 * Temple of Tenochtitlan dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc
 * Sacrifice increase, cannibalism and symbolism developed as part of the cult
 * **Nezahualcoyotl**, king of Texcoco, wrote hymns, and conception of monotheism wasn’t popular ||
 * I || MI: The Aztecs art consider to be pretty bloody and violent.
 * Hopewell culture
 * Cahokia
 * Warrior cults and militaristic images of jaguars/eagles devouring human hearts were in the Toltec art
 * **Nezahualcoyotl** poetry- written down in 16th century questioning on life after death
 * Religious art/poetry- filled with images of flowers, birds, songs, blood, human hearts, “precious water” need to sustain gods
 * Religion depend on complex mythology~ birth and history of gods/relationships with peoples/ religious symbolism of aspect of life
 * Word destroy 4 times before it could be destroy again ||
 * T || MI: The Aztecs invented the Chinampas and Calendar system.
 * Mesoamerican calendar system- many ceremonies were held by the calendar
 * **Chinampas**- increase agriculture ||

After the fall of the Toltec empire, the Aztecs begin to build their own empire that organized by war and motivated by religion/beliefs. The Aztecs consider themselves to be the Mexica. Many of the people have spoken Nahuatl, the language that the Toltecs have spoken. The Aztecs are able to speak the same language as them and as a result their power rise and was accepted by the people there. Later on they settle in Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs believes in gods. The gods were supported with ceremonies involving feasting, dancing, and sacrifice. Social structures in the Aztecs society were similar to the European by having commoners, nobles, lords, and laborers. As the Aztecs continues to expand, trade and agriculture has developed and brought new ideas, such as the Chinampas was created to water all the plants. Women were also similar to the European, they are able to own lands and not able to be part of political society like the men is. Arts in the Aztecs were considered to be well rounded; they have peaceful images and also bloody images. Revolts were later on developed due to the unfairness in the social structure of the commoners and contribute to the Aztec Empire’s collapse.

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//ESPIRIT CHART ON INCAS// Incas o Under the ruler, **Pachacuti** (1438-1471) § Launch military alliances/campaigns bringing control of whole area from Cuzco to shores of Lake Titicaca. o Pachacuti’s son and successor, Topac Tupanqi took over northern coastal Chimor king by seizing the irrigation system, soon control was extended to southern area. Summary: Incas civilization has come to a far advance than the Aztecs. They begin to build temples, buildings, roads, and bridges. Their military expansion and conquest help the Incas to gain more power. Both men and women of the Incas believed in the worship of god and ancestor, they somewhat have an idea of afterlife. Marriages for the Incas have lead toward alliances and expansion due to the other civilization becoming friends of each other. The government system is run by bureaucracy and was divided into four provinces while the nobles took most of it. Copper and bronze were used to make weapons and tools. Also, cloth weaving was considered to be an Andean Art, which considers being a religious and political thing. For the Incas, states usually control production and trade of foods.
 * E || MI:
 * States in Andean highlands broad open areas near Lake Titicaca and state along rivers on north coast like the Moche valley remain the centers of agricultural activity/ population density.
 * Andean Highlands had few large urban areas, ethnic groups, and politics, also struggling over legacy of Tihuanaco. ||
 * S || MI:
 * Clans that are related to Quechua-speaking clans or ayllus, lived near Cuzco that has been influence by Huari and defeated their enemy neighbors in the area in 1438.
 * Conquer people became part of the army and goods were rewarded for new conquest.
 * Yanas-> servants, artisans/workers-> nobility
 * Ayllus in each community controls land, consider to be an upper class
 * Women were taken as servants of temples called “Virgins of the sun” ||
 * P || MI:
 * Through Andean cultural hearth, a large “intermediate horizon” states such as Tihuanaco and Huari (550-1000 C.E) break out and as a result small regional states gains power.
 * States controlling production and surplus in trade.
 * Marriages leads to friends and extend power of state
 * Bureaucratic government on the people with different languages and culture.
 * Run by state bureaucracy and divided provinces into four-nobles took most
 * Curacas leaders are able to maintain position/given right in return in loyalty ||
 * I || MI:
 * Between 900 and conquest of Incas in 1465, Chimor gain control of the north coast of Peru.
 * Inca armies continue to march, extending control over territory.
 * Cloth weaving was a great Andean art consider to be religious and political
 * Copper and bronze was use as weapon and tools ||
 * R || MI:
 * Gods/goddesses were worship/believe in by men and women
 * Temple priest was head of festivals and celebrations
 * State worship religion, Viracocha who’s the creator, god was favorite and Inca belief of profound natural beliefs.
 * Incas adopted royal split inheritance practice
 * Ancestor were worship and the cult of royal mummies ||
 * I || MI:
 * Military expansion and conquest. ||
 * T || MI:
 * Road system and buildings
 * Complex system of roads and bridges
 * Temples were built called huacas/holy shrines, where prayers offered and animal ||